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{{History of the Mongols}}
 
== History ==
{{Main|History of Mongolia}}
 
In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the [[Scythians]], the [[Gog and Magog|Magog]], and the [[Tungusic peoples]]. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the [[Donghu people|Donghu]], a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and [[Manchuria]]. The identity of the [[Xiongnu]] (Hünnü) is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were [[proto-Mongols]], they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and [[Turkic tribes]].<ref name="Geng 2005">Geng 2005</ref> It has been suggested that the language of the [[Huns]] was related to the Hünnü.<ref>Étienne de la Vaissière, Xiongnu. [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/xiongnu Encyclopædia Iranica online], 2006</ref><ref>Dr. Obrusánszky, Borbála : The History and Civilization of the Huns. Paper of the University of Amsterdam, 8 October 2007. Page 60. [http://www.epa.oszk.hu/00000/00007/00028/pdf/00028.pdf PDF]</ref>
<!--<ref>The autonomous Hunnic language was evidenced – [http://hunsarecoming.oxyhost.com/orighunlang.htm summary], Prof. Uchiraltu: The words of Hunnic language, 2007, Inner Mongolian University Press</ref><ref>The Asian Huns in the Chinese sources. Katalin Csornai, 2007, Budapest, Hungary [http://hunsarecoming.oxyhost.com/articles/asianhuns_chinesesources.htm summary]</ref> -->
 
The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms ([[Xianbei]] and [[Wuhuan]] peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the [[Khitan people|Khitan]]).<ref>[[Frances Wood]], ''The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia'', p. 48</ref>
 
=== Origin ===
See [[Genetic history of East Asians]]
 
=== In the Chinese classics ===
{{see also|Timeline of Mongols prior to the Mongol Empire}}
The Donghu are mentioned by [[Sima Qian]] as already existing in [[Inner Mongolia]] north of [[Yan (state)|Yan]] in 699–632 BCE along with the [[Shanrong]]. Mentions in the ''[[Yi Zhou Shu]]'' ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the ''[[Classic of Mountains and Seas]]'' indicate the Donghu were also active during the [[Shang dynasty]] (1600–1046 BCE).
 
The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, but had earlier times of independence, as evidenced by a mention in the ''[[Guoyu (book)|Guoyu]]'' ("晉語八" section), which states that during the reign of [[King Cheng of Zhou]] (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) they came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now [[Qishan County]]) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of [[Chu (state)|Chu]] since they were not vassals by covenant (诸侯). The Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with [[Xiong Yi]].
 
These early Xianbei came from the nearby [[Zhukaigou culture]] (2200–1500 BCE) in the [[Ordos Desert]], where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol [[Daur people]] and the Tungusic [[Evenks]]. The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the [[Ordos culture]] of Inner Mongolia and northern [[Shaanxi]]) had trade relations with the Shang. In the late 2nd century, the Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔) wrote in his commentary "Jixie" (集解) that "[[Shanrong]] and [[Beidi]] are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei". Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the [[Upper Xiajiadian culture]] (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered.
 
After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king [[Modu Chanyu]], the Xianbei and [[Wuhuan]] survived as the main remnants of the confederation. [[Tadun]] Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic [[Kumo Xi]].<ref>[[Xin Tangshu]] 219. 6173.</ref> The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the ''[[New Book of Tang]]'' says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from [[Emperor Guangwu of Han]]. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, [[Xianbei state]] (93–234).
 
Three prominent groups split from the [[Xianbei state]] as recorded by the Chinese histories: the [[Rouran]] (claimed by some to be the [[Pannonian Avars]]), the [[Khitan people]] and the [[Shiwei people|Shiwei]] (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols).<ref>University of California, Berkeley. Project on Linguistic Analysis, ''Journal of Chinese linguistics'', p. 154</ref> Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the [[Murong]], [[Duan (tribe)|Duan]] and [[Tuoba]]. Their culture was nomadic, their religion [[shamanism]] or [[Buddhism]] and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke [[Mongolic languages]], although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic.<ref>Thomas Hoppe, ''Die ethnischen Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kulturunterschiede und interethnische'', p. 66</ref> The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings.
 
Geographically, the [[Tuoba]] Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran ([[Yujiulü Shelun]] was the first to use the title [[khagan]] in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of [[Korea]] and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the [[First Turkic Khaganate]] in 555, the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] in 745 and the [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, [[Bayan I]]. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the [[Tatar confederation]], who became part of the [[Shiwei people|Shiwei]]. The Khitan, who were independent after their separation from the [[Kumo Xi]] (of [[Wuhuan]] origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Ambagai (872–926), established the [[Liao dynasty]] (907–1125) as [[Emperor Taizu of Liao]].
 
=== Era of the Mongol Empire and Northern Yuan ===
{{Main|Mongol Empire|Northern Yuan dynasty}}
[[File:Asia 500ad.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.65|Asia in 500, showing the [[Rouran Khaganate]] and its neighbors, including the Northern Wei and the Tuyuhun Khanate, all of them were established by Proto-Mongols]]
 
The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leader). The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] state was centered on [[Khakassia]] and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of [[Abaoji]], prevailed in several military campaigns against the [[Tang Dynasty]]{{'}}s border guards, and the [[Kumo Xi|Xi]], [[Shiwei people|Shiwei]] and [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] nomadic groups.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = The Other Press| isbn = 978-983-9541-88-5| last = San| first = Tan Koon| title = Dynastic China: An Elementary History| date = 2014-08-15}}</ref>
 
The Khitan fled west after being defeated by the [[Jurchens]] (later known as [[Manchu people|Manchu]]) and founded the [[Qara Khitai]] (1125–1218) in eastern [[Kazakhstan]]. In 1218, Genghis Khan destroyed the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all [[Eurasia]] and carried on military campaigns from the [[Adriatic Sea]] to [[Indonesia]]n [[Java]] island and from [[Mongol invasion of Japan|Japan]] to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] ([[Gaza City|Gaza]]). They simultaneously became [[Padishah]]s of [[Persia]], [[Emperors of China]], and [[Great Khans]] of Mongolia, and one became [[Sultan of Egypt]] ([[Al-Adil Kitbugha]]). The Mongolic peoples of the [[Golden Horde]] established themselves to govern Russia by 1240.<ref name="Jerry Bentley 1993">Jerry Bentley, "Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 136.</ref> By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China under control of the [[Yuan dynasty]].<ref name="Jerry Bentley 1993"/>
 
[[File:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mongols using [[China|Chinese]] [[gunpowder]] bombs during the [[Mongol Invasions of Japan]], 1281]]
 
With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of [[Azerbaijanis]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Karakalpaks]], [[Tatars]], [[Bashkirs]], [[Turkmens]], [[Uyghurs]], [[Nogays]], [[Kyrgyzs]], [[Kazakhs]], [[People of Caucasus|Caucasaus peoples]], [[Iranian peoples]] and [[Mughal (tribe)|Moghuls]]; linguistic and cultural [[Persianization]] also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into the [[Yakuts]] after their migration to Northern Siberia and about 30% of [[Yakut language|Yakut words]] have Mongol origin. However, most of the Yuan Mongols returned to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in Southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern china and eventually assimilated. The [[Dongxiangs]], [[Bonans]], [[Yugur]] and [[Monguor people]] were invaded by Chinese [[Ming dynasty]].
 
After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]] in Mongolia homeland. However, the [[Oirad]]s began to challenge the Eastern Mongolic peoples under the [[Borjigin]] monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: [[Western Mongolia]] ([[Oirats]]) and Eastern Mongolia ([[Khalkha]], [[Inner Mongols]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Buryats]]). The earliest written references to the [[plough]] in [[Middle Mongol language|Middle Mongolian]] language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c.<ref>MOLNÁR, ÁDÁM. "THE PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING AMONG THE ALTAIC PEOPLES." Central Asiatic Journal 26, no. 3/4 (1982): 215-24.</ref>
 
In 1434, Eastern Mongolian [[Taisun Khan]]'s (1433–1452) prime minister Western Mongolian Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Eastern Mongolian another king Adai ([[Khorchin]]). Togoon died in 1439 and his son [[Esen Taish]] became prime minister. Esen carried out successful policy for Mongolian unification and independence. The Ming Empire attempted to invade Mongolia in the 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming Empire was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongolian armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in [[Tumu Crisis|1449]]. Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of [[Great Khan]] (1454–1455) of the [[Great Yuan]].<ref>Sechin Jagchid, Van Jay Symons – Peace, war, and trade along the Great Wall: Nomadic-Chinese interaction through two millennia, p.49</ref>
 
The Khalkha emerged during the reign of [[Dayan Khan]] (1479–1543) as one of the six [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]s of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper.<ref>[[Juha Janhunen|Janhunen, Juha]] ''The Mongolic languages'', p.177</ref><ref>Elizabeth E. Bacon ''Obok: A Study of Social Structure in Eurasia'', p.82</ref> He reunited the Mongols again. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian [[Tümen Zasagt Khan]] rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this).
 
Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the 17th century: [[Outer Mongolia]] (Khalkha), [[Inner Mongolia]] (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern [[Siberia]].
 
The last Mongol khagan was [[Ligdan Khan|Ligdan]] in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the [[Manchu people|Manchus]] over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the [[Ming dynasty]] to protect their northern border from the Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the [[Chahars]] remained under his rule.
 
=== Qing-era Mongols ===
{{see also|Mongolia under Qing rule}}
The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan [[Gelugpa]] sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligdan supported [[Kagyu]] sect (Red Hat sect) of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Ligden died in 1634 on his way to [[Tibet]]. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the [[Qing dynasty]] founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis [[noyan]] revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud.
 
Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongolian strength. In 1688, Western Mongolian [[Dzungar Khanate]]'s king [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan|Galdan Boshugtu]] attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and [[Zanabazar]] (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu.
 
In 1683 [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan|Galdan]]'s armies reached [[Tashkent]] and the [[Syr Darya]] and crushed two armies of the [[Kazakhs]]. After that Galdan subjugated the [[Kyrgyz people|Black Khirgizs]] and ravaged the [[Fergana Valley]]. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took [[Taraz]], and his main force forced the Kazakhs to migrate westwards.<ref>Michael Khodarkovsky – Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600–1771, p.211</ref> In 1687, he besieged the [[Turkistan (city)|City of Turkistan]]. Under the leadership of [[Abul Khair Khan]], the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid=306&ah=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 |title=Country Briefings: Kazakhstan |work=The Economist |accessdate=1 June 2010}}</ref>
 
[[File:Qing Dzungar wars.jpg|300px|thumb|Map showing [[Dzungar–Qing Wars|wars]] between Qing Dynasty and Dzungar Khanate]]
The Khalkha eventually submitted to [[Mongolia under Qing rule|Qing rule]] in 1691 by [[Zanabazar]]'s decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha ''[[de facto]]'' remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of [[Outer Mongolia]] until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of [[Khövsgöl Province]]. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war.
 
Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, [[Tibetans]], [[Kumul Khanate]] and some [[Moghulistan]]'s nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing.
 
There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew [[Tseveenravdan]] seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats.
 
[[File:Langshiming mao.JPG|thumb|250px|left|A Mongol soldier called [[Ayusi]] from the high Qing era, by [[Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)|Giuseppe Castiglione]], 1755]]
 
The Buryats fought against Russian [[Russian conquest of Siberia|invasion]] since the [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|1620s]] and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides of [[Lake Baikal]] were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]] established the northern border of [[Manchuria]] north of the present line. The Russians retained [[Trans-Baikal]]ia between Lake Baikal and the [[Argun River (Asia)|Argun River]] north of Mongolia. The [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)]], along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between [[Imperial Russia]] and the Qing Empire until the mid-nineteenth century. It established the [[Mongolia-Russia border|northern border]] of Mongolia. [[Oka River (Siberia)|Oka]] Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians.
 
[[File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.30|The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing (that ruled China at the time) and Mongol Dzungar armies. The fall of the [[Dzungar Khanate]]]]
 
The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's [[Khoshut Khanate]] in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed.<ref name="montaa.mn">[http://montaa.mn/content/view/73/ БУЦАЖ ИРЭЭГҮЙ МОНГОЛ АЙМГУУД] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115172101/http://montaa.mn/content/view/73/ |date=2013-11-15 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The [[Dzungar Khanate]] conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.<ref>[http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114903/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |date=July 6, 2011 }}</ref> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on [[genocide]],<ref>[http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html Dr. Mark Levene] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135041/http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html |date=2008-12-16 }}, [[Southampton University]], see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."<ref>A. Dirk Moses (2008). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA188 Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History]''". Berghahn Books. p.188. {{ISBN|1845454529}}</ref> The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755.
 
About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from Western Mongolia to [[Volga River]] in 1607 and established the [[Kalmyk Khanate]].The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, [[Kho Orluk|Höö Örlög]]. Russia was concerned about their attack but the [[Kalmyks]] became Russian ally and a treaty to protect Southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia.In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of [[Russia]]. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} The [[Tsardom of Russia]] gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The [[Russian Orthodox church]], by contrast, pressured [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy.In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000)<ref name="oirad.mn">[http://www.oirad.mn/2011/12/%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2-%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB/ ТИВ ДАМНАСАН НҮҮДЭЛ] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130628032215/http://www.oirad.mn/2011/12/%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2-%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB/ |date=2013-06-28 }} (Mongolian)</ref> Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the [[Volga River]] to Dzungaria (Western Mongolia), through the territories of their [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]] and [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] enemies. The last Kalmyk khan [[Ubashi Khan|Ubashi]] led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)|Russo-Turkish War]] in 1768–1769 to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress [[Catherine the Great]] ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.<ref name="oirad.mn"/><ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=1186139 Ижил мөрөн хүртэлх их нүүдэл] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131130070013/http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=1186139 |date=2013-11-30 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://www.shudarga.mn/news/10489.html Тал нутгийн Нүүдэлчин Халимагууд Эх нутаг Монгол руугаа тэмүүлсэн түүх] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203120601/http://www.shudarga.mn/news/10489.html |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://www.hicheel.mn/index.php?module=menu&cmd=content&id=3007&menu_id=437 Баруун Монголын нүүдэл суудал] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001654/http://www.hicheel.mn/index.php?module=menu&cmd=content&id=3007&menu_id=437 |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref>[http://new.hist.asu.ru/biblio/V2/45-54.pdf К вопросу о бегстве волжских калмыков в Джунгарию в 1771 году] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725190713/http://new.hist.asu.ru/biblio/V2/45-54.pdf |date=2012-07-25 }} '''(Russian)'''</ref> The [[Kyrgyzs]] attacked them near [[Balkhash Lake]]. About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the [[Volga River]] could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073)<ref name="oirad.mn"/> of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Qing Empire).<ref>Michael Khodarkovsky (2002)."''[https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405117767 Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800]''". Indiana University Press. p.142. {{ISBN|0253217709}}</ref> The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only [[Georgia (country)#Georgia in the Russian Empire|Georgia]] voluntarily accepted Russian rule.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=FIvp2uSOsIYC&pg=PA49&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false Владимир Андреевич Хамутаев, Присоединение Бурятии к России: история, право, политика] '''(Russian)'''</ref><ref>[http://burinfo.org/news/kham_u Известный бурятский ученый Владимир Хамутаев собирается получить политическое убежище в США] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214084211/http://burinfo.org/news/kham_u/ |date=2013-12-14 }} '''(Russian)'''</ref>
 
In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouraged [[Han Chinese]] colonization of Mongolian lands under the name of "[[New Policies]]" or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders (especially those of Outer Mongolia) decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the [[Xinhai Revolution]], the [[Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911]] in Outer Mongolia ended over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty.
 
=== Post-Qing era ===
[[File:Mongolia, near Ulaanbaatar.jpg|thumb|Buddhist lama in Mongolia near Ulaanbaatar, probably [[Sodnomyn Damdinbazar]].]]
With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day [[Uvs Province|Uvs]], [[Khovd Province|Khovd]], and [[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii provinces]]), but Northern [[Xinjiang]] (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), [[Upper Mongolia]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and [[Inner Mongolia]] came under control of the newly formed [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]]. On February 2, 1913 the [[Mongolia (1911–24)|Bogd Khanate of Mongolia]] sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. [[Russia]] refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], referred to it as "Mongolian [[imperialism]]". Additionally, the [[United Kingdom]] urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then [[Central Asia]]ns will revolt". [[:mn:Таван замын байлдаан|10,000]] Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, [[Upper Mongols]], [[Barga Mongols]], most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of [[Pan-Mongolism|Mongolian reunification]]. In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime.<ref>Proceedings of the Fifth East Asian Altaistic Conference, December 26, 1979 – January 2, 1980, Taipei, China, p144</ref> Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], Dzungaria, [[Tuva]], Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)|1915 Treaty of Kyakhta]].
 
In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the [[White movement|White Russian]] army—led by [[Baron Ungern]] and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar [[cossacks]]—liberated the Mongolian [[Ulaanbaatar|capital]]. Baron Ungern's purpose was to find allies to defeat the [[Soviet Union]]. The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian [[People's Republic of Mongolia|revolutionist leaders]] in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other [[List of active separatist movements in Asia#China (PRC)|irredentist]] [[List of active separatist movements in Europe#Russian Federation|movements]].
 
On 10 April 1932 Mongolians [[1932 armed uprising in Mongolia|revolted]] against the government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October.
 
The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the [[Stalinist repressions in Mongolia]] almost all adult Buryat men and 22–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders.<ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=113303 Богд хааны жолооч хилс хэрэгт хэлмэгдсэн нь] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021133/http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=113303 |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref><ref name="Death Tolls">[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat5.htm#Mong2 Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls]</ref> Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.<ref name="Death Tolls"/> Around the late 1930s the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people, the population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". Proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the [[Great Purge]] in the Soviet Union.
 
[[File:Khalkhin Gol George Zhukov and Khorloogiin Choibalsan 1939.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]], leader of the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] (left), and [[Georgy Zhukov]] consult during the [[Battle of Khalkhin Gol]] against Japanese troops, 1939]]
The [[Manchukuo]] (1932–1945), [[puppet state]] of the [[Empire of Japan]] (1868–1947) invaded [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the [[Great Wall of China]] during the [[Soviet–Japanese War (1945)|Soviet–Japanese War of 1945]] (Mongolian name: ''Liberation War of 1945''). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the [[Soviet Army]] blocked Inner Mongolian migrants way. It was a part of Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ([[Huuchid]]s, Bargas, [[Tümed]]s, [[Üzemchin Mongols|about 800 Uzemchins]]) [[Demographics of Mongolia#Ethnic groups of Mongolia|arrived]]. Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the [[Inner Mongolian Army]] in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. Inner Mongolian nominally independent [[Mengjiang]] state (1936–1945) was established with support of Japan in 1936 also some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded Pan-Mongolist government with support of Japan in 1919.
 
[[File:Monumento ruso en Ulan Bator, Mongolia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|World War II [[Zaisan Memorial]], Ulaan Baatar, from the [[People's Republic of Mongolia]] era.]]
 
The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945.
 
Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support the Communists were unable to defeat Japan and [[Kuomintang]].
 
Mongolia and Soviet-supported Xinjiang [[Uyghurs]] and [[Kazakhs]]' [[:Category:East Turkestan independence movement|separatist]] [[Second East Turkestan Republic|movement]] in the 1930–1940s. By 1945, Soviet refused to support them after its alliance with the Communist Party of China and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat's militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but the Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. [[Basmachi movement|Basmachi]]s or Turkic and [[Tajiks|Tajik]] militants fought to liberate [[Central Asia]] ([[Soviet Central Asia]]) until 1942.
 
On February 2, 1913 the [[Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet]] was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in [[Tibet (1912-51)|Tibet]] to change its regime in the 1920s.
 
On October 27, 1961, the United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization.
 
The [[Tsardom of Russia]], [[Russian Empire]], Soviet Union, [[Republic of China|capitalist]] and communist [[China]] [[Soviet war crimes|performed]] many [[State terrorism|genocide]] [[Human rights in Russia#Ethnic minorities|actions]] [[Human rights of ethnic minorities in China|against]] the Mongols (assimilate, reduce the population, [[Cultural genocide|extinguish]] the language, culture, tradition, history, religion and [[ethnic identity]]). [[Peter the Great]] said: "The headwaters of the [[Yenisei River]] must be Russian land".<ref>L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995</ref> Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ([[World War I]] and other wars). Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not the Mongols during the 20th century (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during [[:mn:Буриадын ард түмний бослого|the rebellion of 1927]] and around one-third of Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.<ref>[http://www.pandia.ru/text/77/152/9539.php Войны ХХ века и их жертвы /тысяч человек/] '''(Russian)'''</ref><ref>[http://horidoimergen.blog.gogo.mn/read/entry128563 Буриад-Монголын үндэстний хөдөлгөөн, тулгамдсан асуудлууд] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203121332/http://horidoimergen.blog.gogo.mn/read/entry128563 |date=2013-12-03 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s.<ref>[http://baigalmirny.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1336&Itemid=96 История (до и начало XX века)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227122719/http://baigalmirny.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1336&Itemid=96 |date=2014-12-27 }} '''(Russian)'''</ref> In 1919 the Buryats established a small [[theocracy|theocratic]] Balagad state in [[Kizhinginsky District]] of Russia and the Buryat's state fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
 
On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused.71–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the [[Russian famine of 1921–22]].<ref name="Munkhbayar">[http://sonin.mn/blog/Munkhbayar/21142 XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувь аймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> The Kalmyks revolted against Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943 (see [[Kalmykian Cavalry Corps]]). In 1913, [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from [[Volga River|Volga]] [[Tatars]]. But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population".<ref name="ulstor.com">[http://www.ulstor.com/2010/10/blog-post_1768.html Халимагийн эмгэнэлт түүхээс] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227071634/http://www.ulstor.com/2010/10/blog-post_1768.html |date=2014-12-27 }} '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> On 23 April 1923 [[Joseph Stalin]], communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols.Our policy is too peaceful".<ref name="ulstor.com"/> In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, [[tundra]] and [[Karelia]].The Kalmyks founded sovereign [[List of Mongol states#Modern states|Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk]] on 22 March 1930.<ref name="ulstor.com"/> The Oirat's state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirat's state destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian [[nationalism|nationalists]] and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggest.
 
Stalin [[Kalmyk deportations of 1943|deported]] all Kalmyks to [[Siberia]] in 1943 and around half of (97–98,000) Kalmyk people deported to [[Siberia]] died before being allowed to return home in 1957.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/4580467.stm Regions and territories: Kalmykia]</ref> The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching [[Kalmyk language]] during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army.Marshal [[Khorloogiin Choibalsan]] attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide.
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev in Mongolia August 2009-26.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Mongolian President [[Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj]] (right)]]
 
After the end of World War II, the [[Chinese Civil War]] resumed between the [[Chinese Nationalists]] (Kuomintang), led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]], and the [[Chinese Communist Party]], led by [[Mao Zedong]]. In December 1949, Chiang evacuated his government to Taiwan. Hundred thousands Inner Mongols were massacred during the [[Cultural Revolution]] in the 1960s and China forbade Mongol traditions, celebrations and the teaching of Mongolic languages during the revolution. In Inner Mongolia, some 790,000 people were persecuted. Approximately 1,000,000 Inner Mongols were killed during the 20th century.<ref name="IMPP">[[Inner Mongolian People's Party]]</ref>{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In 1960 Chinese newspaper wrote that "Han Chinese [[ethnic identity]] must be Chinese minorities ethnic identity".{{Citation needed|date=April 2017}} China-Mongolia relations were tense from the 1960s to the 1980s as a result of [[Sino-Soviet split]], and there were several border conflicts during the period.<ref name="LOC">{{cite web|title=Mongolia-China relations|archivedate=2017-08-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801114244/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+mn0146%29|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mn0146)|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|accessdate=2008-06-15|url-status=dead}}</ref> Cross-border movement of Mongols was therefore hindered.
 
On 3 October 2002 the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Republic of China)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that Taiwan [[Foreign relations of Taiwan#Mongolia|recognizes]] Mongolia as an independent country,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/2002/10/11/0000175237|title=Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year|newspaper=Taipei Times |date=2002-10-11|accessdate=2009-05-28|quote=In October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for independence, gaining the recognition of many countries, including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring of relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia, reclaiming it as ROC territory.}}</ref> although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1842387.stm|title=Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China |work=BBC News|date=2002-02-26 |accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the [[Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtac.gov.tw/pages.php?lang=5|title=The History of MTAC|publisher=Mongolian & Tibetan Affairs Commission|accessdate=2009-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508080715/http://www.mtac.gov.tw/pages.php?lang=5|archive-date=2009-05-08|url-status=dead}}</ref> lie dormant.
 
[[Agin-Buryat Okrug]] and [[Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug]]s merged with [[Irkutsk Oblast]] and [[Chita Oblast]] in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in [[2011 Inner Mongolia unrest|2011]]. The [[Inner Mongolian People's Party]] is a member of the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]<ref>[http://www.unpo.org/members/7883 unpo.org]</ref> and its leaders are [[:Category:Inner Mongolian independence movement|attempting]] to establish sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia.
 
[[File:Gurvger.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|A Mongolic [[yurt|Ger]]]]
 
== Gallery ==
"https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/ᱢᱳᱝᱜᱳᱞ" ᱠᱷᱚᱱ ᱧᱟᱢ ᱟᱹᱜᱩᱭ